第2章 跨语言习得理论——存在所有语言通用的理论模型吗?

The Foundations of Literacy Acquisition Across Languages: One Size Theory Does Not Fit All

[加拿大]乔治·乔治乌(George K.Georgiou)[1]

本章我们将跨语言研究的文献分为三类来进行回顾:(1)拼音文字阅读和拼写的影响因素;(2)拼音和汉语阅读及拼写的影响因素;(3)在儿童双语情况下,拼音和汉语阅读及拼写的影响因素。研究目的是,探讨在跨语言背景下语音加工(语音意识、快速自动化命名、语音短时记忆)和读写能力之间关系的通用模式。很明显,这三类研究的结果是不尽相同的。这表明我们离发现读写能力习得的通用理论还很远。由于研究中的实验设计不同(有些是跟踪的、有些是横向的,有些是并行的)、测验的工具不同、参与者的年龄不同,以及研究所包含的语言和彼此之间正字法的差距,我们无法对语音加工能力在跨语言读写中的关系得出确切的结论。

焦点阅读

·什么是影响儿童阅读和书写的重要因素呢?本章通过跨语言研究对不同语言的语音加工模式进行了细致的对比研究。

关键词

阅读,拼写,跨语言,心理语言的纹理理论,语音加工,快速命名,语音意识

过去十年间,我们看到跨语言读写习得研究大量涌现(例如,Caravolas et al.,2012;Caravolas,Vólin,& Hulme,2005;Furnes&Samuelsson,2011;Georgiou,Parrila,& Papadopoulos,2008;Manolitsis,Georgiou,Stephenson,& Parrila,2009;Mc-Bride-Chang et al.,2005;Moll et al.,2014;Smythe et al.,2008;Vaessen et al.,2010;Ziegler et al.,2010)。这些研究可以分为三大类型:

(1)在拼写规则一致的拼音文字中,阅读和拼写的影响因素;

(2)拼音和汉语中,阅读和拼写的影响因素;

(3)在儿童双语情况下,拼音(如英文)和非拼音文字(如中文)中,阅读和拼写的影响因素(如在日本儿童学习假名和汉字时)。

本章作者将对三类研究逐一进行回顾,以期确定它们的共同模式以及这些研究中呈现的相关问题。在此不再回顾考察第一语言(如汉语)和第二语言(如英语)读写能力影响因素的第四类研究。

阅读发展的心理语言纹理理论

根据形音对应规则,拼音语言可被排列为从透明(或称浅层文字)到不透明(或称深度文字)的连续体(Seymour,Aro,& Erskine,2003)。正字法一致的语言,如芬兰语、意大利语或希腊语,通常被认定为是字母或字母组合与语音存在一致性映射的语言;反之,正字法不一致的语言,如英语、丹麦语或法语,字母和语音之间的关系通常较模糊。一些研究确认,对于正字法不一致的语言,阅读发展的速度也是不同的(Aro & Wimmer,2003;Ellis & Hooper,2001;Ellis et al.,2004;Seymour et al.,2003)。学习阅读正字法一致的语言的儿童在词和非词的阅读准确度方面的成绩超过学习阅读正字法不一致语言的儿童(Aro & Wimmer,2003;Ellis et al.,2004;Seymour et al.,2003)。

齐格勒与戈斯瓦米(Ziegler & Goswami,2005)提出了心理语言的纹理理论(The Psycholinguistic Grain Size Theory)。根据该理论,“研究发现,在不同正字法中,阅读精度和阅读速度方面的显著差异反映了读者在应对正字法时形成的语音再编码和阅读策略的本质差异”(P.19)。一方面,学习正字法规则一致语言的儿童,例如学习芬兰语、希腊语或意大利语,其正字法和发音之间的关系是明确的;另一方面,学习正字法不一致语言的儿童,例如学习英语或法语,他们无法依赖较小的纹理,因为较小语音单位的不一致性要比较大语音单位的高得多。小语音单位的阅读不可靠性会促使儿童形成灵活的再编码策略,例如形音对应、类比、整字识别等。

如果说正字法规则一致性是决定阅读习得速度的一个重要因素,那么下一个问题自然是:在这些不同语言中,阅读能力对相同认知技能的依赖到底有多大?比如说,与学习阅读芬兰语的儿童相比,学习阅读英语的儿童在词汇阅读的准确性方面取得相同水平多花了四倍的时间(Seymour et al.,2003),那么,我们这样假设似乎就是合理的:这些阅读习得过程要么是依赖了不同的认知技能,要么是不同程度地依赖着相同的认知技能。

读写习得的基本技能之一是语音加工(Blachman,1997;Chow,McBride-Chang,& Burgess,2005;Wagner & Torgesen,1987),即使用口头语言的声音结构加工书面信息和口头信息(例如,Wagner & Torgesen,1987)。语音加工的三个不同方面——语音意识、语音短时记忆和快速自动化命名(RAN)被用来预测拼音文字语言(例如,Casalis & Luis-Alexandre,2000;de Jong & van der Leij,1999;Holopainen,Ahonen & Lyytinen,2001;Manis,Doi,& Bhadha,2000;Muter,Hulme,Snowling,& Stevenson,2004;Parrila,Kirby,& McQuarrie,2004;Schatschneider,Carlson,Francis,Foorman,& Fletcher,2002)和非拼音文字语言(e.g.,Ho & Bryant,1997;Kobayashi,Haynes,Macaruso,Hook,& Kato,2005;McBride-Chang&Ho,2005;Pan et al.,2011;Park & Uno,2015;Wei et al.,2014)中的阅读习得速度。在此基础之上,由于这些加工技能都包含在跨语言研究的三大类研究中,笔者将对涉及此类加工技能的文献进行回顾。

拼音文字读写习得的影响因素

根据以往的研究,我们并不能根据相同的语音意识(例如,音节、首音和尾音、或音素)来预测不同语言中相似的阅读发展水平(Goswami,1999)。相反,通过语音单位的大小来预测阅读水平,主要取决于阅读者对语言文字结构以及形音对应规则的了解。 例如,在一项被引用最多的跟踪研究中(Bradley & Bryant,1983),研究者对4~5岁儿童进行了英文尾音意识的异音测验(oddity task),结果发现,即使是对一般认知能力和记忆因素进行了控制以后,儿童的英语尾音意识还会与其三年后的阅读能力紧密相关。但是,一个针对德语儿童的类似跟踪研究发现(Wimmer、Landerl & Schneider,1994),儿童在异音测验中的表现与其在7~8岁时(与前述研究的儿童年龄相同)的阅读和拼写能力只有最低程度相关。

对于那些正字法规则的语言来说,其语音单位起着更为重要的作用。一些研究已经表明,儿童学习阅读能够快速取得较高水平,但其音素意识 (phonemic awareness)并不能很好预测儿童阅读水平的差异(例如,Cossu,Shankweiler,Liberman,Katz,& Tola,1988;Harris & Giannouli,1999;Holopainen et al.,2001)。相反,一些研究者提出(例如,Mayringer,Wimmer,& Landerl,1998;Mann & Wimmer,2002;Wimmer & Mayringer,2001),在正字法规则一致的语言中,较低水平的语音意识 (phonological awareness)对正常的阅读发展来说已经足够了,但是在正字法规则不一致的语言中却还远远不够。研究进一步指出(Mayringer et al.,1998),相对于正字法规则一致的语言,快速自动化命名(RAN)——对连续呈现的、高度熟悉的视觉刺激物尽可能快速命名的能力——会在非一致的语言中发挥更大的作用。

在正字法规则一致的语言中对于每一种语音加工技能在读写习得占有怎样的重要性,横向和跟踪研究得出了相互矛盾的结果。英语儿童的语音意识对今后阅读能力的作用至少在整个小学时期仍然会保持较高的水平,且对先前的阅读成就技能进行统计控制后,结果仍然如此;而RAN的作用似乎具有时限性,且取决于RAN任务类型(字母和数字命名,或颜色和物体命名)和儿童的阅读能力水平差异(例如,Bowers & Wolf,1993;Cardoso-Martins & Pennington,2004;Georgiou,Parrila,Stephenson,& Kirby,2008;Meyer,Wood,Hart,& Felton,1998;Wolf & Bowers,1999)。

有研究调查了语音意识和RAN在三个发展阶段中(幼儿园到二年级、一年级到三年级、二年级到四年级)对后期阅读能力的相对作用(Wagner et al.,1997)。在语音意识和RAN测定之前,将先前的词汇识别能力(自回归量)输入回归方程中,用以确定这些变量在特定时期对增强任一词汇阅读能力的影响。研究发现,RAN只能显著地预测头两个发展期的词汇阅读,而语音意识能预测所有三个时期的阅读能力(Wagner et al.,1997)。相反,有研究发现,在幼儿园和一年级时期测量的RAN能较有效地预测三年级的阅读(Parrila et al.,2004),并且这些结果将延续至五年级(Kirby,Parrila & Pfeiffer,2003)。同样,研究也表明,阅读能力较差的成年人,即便在其晚年生活中,也能明确地鉴别出RAN的缺乏(例如,Birch & Chase,2004;Chiappe,Stringer,Siegel,& Stanovich,2002;Flowers,1995;Parrila,Georgiou,& Corkett,2007)。

另外,英语儿童研究表明,RAN和语音意识可能和不同类型的阅读技能相关(例如,Bowers,1995;Georgiou et al.,2008;Manis et al.,2000;Savage & Frederickson,2005;Torgesen et al.,1997)。研究证明,语音意识和RAN在预测词汇识别准确性方面都是最为显著的变量,且语音意识发挥了更大的作用(Bowers,1995)。然而,在正确识别常规词汇和例外词汇的速度方面,RAN是唯一显著的预测变量,而语音意识则不是。总而言之,这一系列的研究表明,RAN缺乏更可能对那些要求快速或熟练反应的阅读任务表现产生影响,语音意识缺乏更可能对强调精确度的阅读任务表现产生影响。

与英语儿童研究发现相反,在正字法一致的语言中进行的研究表明,语音意识对于阅读能力来说可能是一个重要的影响因素,但是其效果可能只局限于头两个学年(例如,de Jong & van der Leij,2002;Harris & Giannouli,1999;Landerl & Wimmer,2008;Lepola,Poskiparta,Laakkonen & Niemi,2005;Papadopoulos,Georgiou & Kendeou,2009;Wesseling & Reitsma,2000)。另外,一些研究表明,在预测阅读能力方面(样本未径选择V.S.样本经过选择),RAN可能比语音意识发挥了更显著的影响(例如,de Jong & van der Leij,1999;Mayringer et al.,1998;van den Bos,1998;Wimmer,1993)。荷兰语儿童研究结果表明(de Jong & van der leiji's,1999),在学前班进行测量时(含括语音意识、口头语短时记忆和RAN测量),只有RAN仍然对一、二年级时的单词再编码速度具有显著的预测效果;在一年级学年初进行测量时(包括语音意识、语言短时记忆和RAN测量),在预测一年级学年末单词再编码速度方面,RAN和语音意识都是重要的因素,并且三个因素都能显著地预测二年级的单词再编码速度。后续研究进一步表明(de Jong & van der Leij,2002),在控制了一年级单词和词汇再编码速度以后,在一年级学年末的测量中,语音意识和RAN对于预测三年级的单词再编码速度都具有独特的作用。

有少数研究对学习不同语言的儿童进行了对比(例如,Caravolas et al.,2012;Furnes & Samuelsson,2011;Georgiouet al.,2008;Patel,Snowling,& de Jong,2004;Vaessen et al.,2010;Ziegler et al.,2010),关于语音加工方法对阅读能力的影响结论也不尽相同。在首次研究中,研究者使用音素删除任务和测量快速命名速度的方法,对英语和荷兰语阅读速度的影响因素进行了对比(Patel et al.,2004)。英语阅读儿童的年龄范围为6岁2个月到11岁7个月不等,而荷兰语阅读儿童的年龄范围为7岁到11岁10个月不等。结果发现,“英语和荷兰语阅读间同时存在的影响因素极为相似”(p.793)。对于个体阅读差异来说,音素删除(测量准确性和反应时间)是一个显著的影响因素,而快速命名颜色、动物和物体则不是。因此,在无论正字法是否明晰,语音意识都是个体阅读能力差异的一个影响因素。但是,研究结果还发现,即便控制了语言、年龄、词汇量、音素删除和RAN,语言与音素删除交互作用在单词阅读准确性方面导致了大部分的变异量。后续分析分别对英语和荷兰语的单词阅读准确性进行了评价,结果显示,虽然音素删除的准确性对于英语儿童来说是一个显著的影响因素,但对荷兰语儿童则不然。

基于后续研究(Patel et al.,2004)结果,我们也对不同的语音加工技能在不同语言阅读中的作用进行了考察。在第一项研究中,研究者(Georgiou et al.,2008)考察了语音意识、RAN、语言短时记忆和正字法知识对英语(正字法不透明语言)和希腊语(正字法相对透明语言)阅读准确性(猜词活动)、词汇阅读流利性的作用,对一年级和二年级的儿童进行了跟踪,以了解每种语言阅读能力的情况。我们对一年级的儿童进行了认知加工技能的评估,并对一、二年级的儿童都进行了阅读评估。结构方程结果显示,语音加工和正字法加工都对一年级和二年级儿童的阅读能力起独特作用(见图2-1和图2-2)。但是,在两种语言中,这些影响因素的重要性是不同的,尤其是在单词再编码方面。相对于希腊语的猜词活动,语音意识在英语的猜词活动中是更为显著的影响因素。相应地,相比英语的单词阅读流利性测试,RAN在希腊语的单词流利性上是更为显著的影响因素。最后,相对于希腊语阅读,正字法加工在英语阅读中是一个更为显著的影响因素。

在第二项研究中,我们考察了字母知识、语音意识和RNA在三种正字法规则一致性不同的拼音文字语言中对阅读流利性和拼写的影响(Georgiou,Torppa,Manolitsis,Lyytinen,& Parrila,2012),这三种语言分别是:芬兰语(一致性最强的拼音文字语言)、希腊语和英语。我们对相同的儿童被试开展了从幼儿园到二年级的跟踪。与上述发现相似(Georgiou et al.,2008),相对于希腊语或荷兰语的非词阅读,语音意识在英语非词阅读中是更为显著的影响因素;但是,没有发现RAN在这些语言中的作用差异(见图2-3和图2-4)。有趣的是,希腊语中的非词再编码模式与芬兰语的非词再编码模式相似(两者都有一致的字素—音素映射),而希腊语中的拼写模式和英语的拼写模式类似(两者都有不一致的音素—字素映射)。另外,芬兰语中的非词再编码模式和拼写模式类似,因为芬兰语在这两个方面都有一致性。

图2-1 二年级英语和希腊语猜词活动中,影响因素的基线路径模型

注:OC=正字法选择.* p<.05.** p<.01.*** p<.001.

图2-2 二年级英语和希腊语TOWRE影响因素的基线路径模型

注:OC=正字法选择.* p<.05.** p<.01.*** p<.001.

图2-3 二年级希腊语和英语和芬兰语猜词活动中,影响因素的基线路径模型

注:PA=语音意识;LK=字母知识;RAN=快速自动化命名。

* p<.05.** p<.01.*** p<.001.

图2-4 二年级希腊语和英语和芬兰语拼写活动中,影响因素的基线路径模型

注:PA=语音意识;LK=字母知识;RAN=快速自动化命名。

* p<.05.** p<.01.*** p<.001.

汉语与拼音文字语言中的阅读习得影响因素

某些研究对汉语与拼音文字语言中的不同认知加工技能的作用进行了考察(例如,Cheung,Chen,Lai,Wong,& Hills,2001;Georgiou,Aro,Liao,& Parrila,2015;Georgiou,Hirvonen,Liao,Manolitsis,Parrila,& Nurmi,2010;Georgiou,Parrila,& Liao,2008;Mc-Bride-Chang & Kail,2002;McBride-Chang et al.,2005;Smythe et al.,2008)。这是一个非常有趣的现象,因为语音和正字法在汉语中的关系与其在拼音文字语言中的关系完全不同(Hanley,2005)。在汉语书写系统中,由于音素没有被直接呈现出来,那么可以预测,在汉语中语音意识和阅读学习之间的关系可能没有在拼音文字语言中体现的那么强。

有些研究者主张,相对于拼音语言文字来说,语音意识在学习汉语阅读时发挥的作用相对有限(例如,Chow et al.,2005;Huang & Hanley,1995,1997;McBride-Chang & Ho,2000;Mc-Bride-Chang et al.,2005;Shu,McBride-Chang,Wu,& Liu,2006;Siok & Fletcher,2001;Taylor,2002)。汉语是一种语素—音节文字语言,其基本单位“字”代表一个音节和语素。因此为了准确地阅读汉语,儿童无须将音节分解为音素。此外,虽然大约80%的现代汉字使用声旁为字的读音提供了线索,但是它们相对来说较为模糊,在某些情况下甚至起到误导作用(例如,Shu,Chen,Anderson,Wu,& Xuan,2003)。据估计,大约只有23%~26%的声旁合成字(声调也考虑在内)可以通过声旁准确读出(Chung & Leung,2008)[ 但是有研究者估计这一比例可达 39%(Zhou,1978)]。

几项直接对语音意识的作用进行考察的跨语言研究得出了不同的结果。例如,有研究就语音意识、RAN和视觉加工技能对英语和汉语阅读能力的影响进行了比较(McBride-Chang & Kail,2002)。被试为中国香港幼儿园学生(平均年龄=5.08岁)和美国幼儿园学生(平均年龄= 7.10岁)。结果表明,语音意识与阅读能力高度相关,RNA与阅读能力存在弱相关,而视觉加工与阅读能力无相关。研究者提出“根据不同正字法/语言,至少在阅读习得的最早期,某种水平的语音意识或许是学习阅读的一个普遍要素”(P.1403)。然而,后续研究(McBride-Chang et al.,2005)发现,语音意识在阅读英语和韩语单词学习中导致了大部分的变异量,但是在汉字辨识中则不然。第二项研究中,他们同时使用了语素意识和语音意识来预测汉字辨识。可惜的是,不同预测变量的重要性是基于两种语言的结构方程分析、比较得出的,在针对这些跨语言差异进行研究和得出结论时,语言类型均没有作为组间因素得到考虑。

有些研究指出,RAN在汉语阅读中是一个显著的影响因子(例如,

Chow et al.,2005;Liao,Deng,Hamilton,Lee,Wei & Georgiou,2015;Liao,Georgiou,& Parrila,2008;McBride-Chang & Ho,2005;McBride-Chang & Kail,2002;Pan et al.,2011;Wei et al.,2014;Yeung et al.,2011),并且是独立于语言意识发挥作用的(例如,Liao et al.,2015;McBride-Chang & Ho,2000;Pan et al.,2011;Yeung et al.,2011)。

研究RAN和汉语阅读之间的关系要基于两点:首先,因为汉语有很多视觉上较复杂的字(Huang & Hanley,1995;Siok & Fletcher,2001),因此,视觉加工对汉语阅读很重要;视觉加工又是RAN不可缺少的一部分(Stainthorp,Stuart,Powell,Quinlan & Garwood,2010;Wolf & Bowers,1999),因此RAN应该可以用来预测汉语阅读。其次,由于汉字比拼音字母要复杂得多,如果视觉加工假说成立的话,那么比起拼音文字阅读,RAN和汉语阅读之间的关系要密切得多(并且,由于字母在不同的拼音文字中的视觉相似,RAN与英语和其他正字法不透明语言之间的关系强度可能相同)。而两项最新的元分析研究(Araújo,Reis,Petersson,& Faísca,in press;Song,Georgiou,Su,& Shu,2015)得出的证据只能部分支持该假说。分析显示,RAN和汉语阅读流利性(而非阅读的准确性)之间的相关性要比其与拼音正字法语言之间的相关性更显著。

首先,由于汉语中存在着相对大量的、模糊的“符号—声音”对应关系,汉字通常是通过机械记忆来进行学习的(Hanley,2005)。这就要求儿童能够高效地在符号和声音之间建立相对随意的联系。这种随意性也是RAN的核心特点,因为看一个数字(例如“5”)并不能让读者具备读出其发音的能力(Manis,Seidenberg & Doi,1999)。因此,RAN对汉语阅读学习来说应该很重要。然而,如果该假说成立的话,我们应当观测到RAN与阅读汉字之间有更强的相关性(与英文阅读相比),并且相比与正字法规则一致性更强的语言(如芬兰语、希腊语),RAN与英语之间有更强的相关性。有研究通过比较中文和拼音正字法语言的相关性直接检验了这个假说(Georgiou et al.,2008,2015),两项研究的结果显示,在不同语言中,“RAN—阅读”之间的关系没有显著的差异。其次,如果说在学习符号和声音之间建立关联的能力是RAN与汉语相关的原因,那么,在控制了配对联结学习[2]的作用之后,RAN应当不再继续对汉语阅读具有预测作用,而仍有研究证明,在控制了配对联结学习之后,RAN仍然能够预测阅读(Liao et al.,2015;Chui,Georgiou,Zhang,Li,Shu & Zhou,in press)。

两种正字法语言学习的影响因素

少数研究考察了儿童在同时学习阅读两种不同正字法语言时,认知过程所起的作用(Cho & Chen,2005;Cho & Chiu,inpress;Inoue et al.,2015;Koyama,Hansen & Stein,2008;Muroya et al.,2015;Uno,Wydell,Haruhara,Kaneko & Shinya,2009)。这种情况适用于学习阅读谚文[3](一致性正字法)和当用汉字[4](非一致性正字法)的韩国儿童,以及学习阅读假名(一致性正字法)和当用汉字(非一致性正字法)的日本儿童。来自不同国家的儿童在教育实践、社会经济地位、父母信仰、家庭文化环境等因素方面可能不尽相同,该设计的优势在于,这些因素可以在同时学习两种不同正字法语言且来自同一个国家的儿童中保持不变。

在前一组儿童中,研究者考察了语音意识、语素意识和RAN在阅读和拼写谚文与当用汉字的作用(Cho & Chiu,in press)。结果显示,语素意识在阅读和拼写谚文、当用汉字过程中都是一个显著的影响因素,语音意识只能预测谚文的拼写;RAN能预测谚文的拼写以及当用汉字的阅读和拼写。值得注意的是,在预测当用汉字和谚文拼读时,RAN的作用更强,这个结果支持了RAN的预测价值随正字法不透明度的增加而增加的观点。

在后一组儿童中,研究者考察了低级感官加工技能(听觉频率调节敏感性、视觉动作敏感性)和认知技能(语音知识、语音记忆、视觉记忆和汉字正字法知识)在二年级、四年级儿童阅读和拼写准确性方面的作用(Koyama,2008)。结果显示,假名拼写可通过感官加工技能、语音意识和语音记忆进行预测,而不能通过视觉记忆进行预测。相应地,当用汉字阅读的准确性和拼写可通过视觉长期记忆和语音长期记忆进行预测,但是不能通过低级感官加工技能和语音意识进行预测。

为了解决之前假名和汉字拼读研究的一些局限性,研究者进行了一项跟踪研究,考查了语音意识、语音记忆、RAN、正字法知识和语素意识,在预测一年级儿童假名和当用汉字阅读准确性、流利性和拼写方面的重要性(Inoue et al.,2015)。我们在一年级学年开始时进行了认知和假名读写能力的测试,在一年级学年末时进行了假名和当用汉字读写能力的测试。关于再编码,我们的研究结果显示,假名再编码可同时通过语音意识、正字法知识和语素意识进行预测。研究发现语音意识是最强的影响因素,这与字母正字法语言研究发现的结果相一致(例如,Caravolas et al.,2012;Georgiou et al.,2012;Moll et al.,2014;Ziegler et al.,2010)。与假名再编码相对应,当用汉字再编码可通过语素意识、正字法知识、一般认知能力(控制年龄后)、假名再编码能力(阶段1)进行预测,这种模式与之前的汉语研究发现非常一致(例如,Li,Shu,McBride-Chang,Liu,& Peng,2012;McBride-Chang et al.,2005;Shu et al.,2006;Yeung et al.,2011)。RAN、正字法知识、语素意识同时对假名的阅读流利性起作用。另外,虽然所有因素在统计意义上的直接作用都不那么显著,但是RAN和正字法知识仍然通过阶段1的阅读流利性,对阶段2中的假名阅读流利性发挥了显著的影响。对于当用汉字阅读流利性,研究发现,在对年龄、一般认知能力和阶段1的假名阅读流利性等因素进行了控制之后,RAN和语素意识仍然对阶段2中的当用汉字阅读流利性有很强的影响。RAN对假名和当用汉字都有显著性作用,但是RAN对当用汉字和假名的阅读流利性的作用更强。值得注意的是,在控制了阶段1的假名阅读流利性之后,RAN只有在阶段2中的当用汉字阅读流利性上发挥了显著的直接作用。

总结和质疑

总而言之,关于儿童英语阅读学习的研究总体上强调了语音意识的长期重要性和RAN的限时重要性;而儿童在一致性更强的正字法语言的阅读学习研究中,总体上强调了RAN的长期重要性和语音意识的限时重要性。尽管这些研究结果可能真实反映了阅读习得过程在不同程度上对潜在认知过程的依赖,但是它们都明显地存在着方法学方面的问题,可能会对上述结论起到损害作用。

第一,有学者指出,在一致性正字法语言中,语音意识的时限性影响很可能源于研究者选择了不同的测量语音意识的方法(Caravolas et al.,2005)。他们提出,通过难度较大的试验任务测量语音意识时,可以在年龄较大的儿童身上检测到语音意识对阅读能力的显著作用。在对2~5年级的正常发展儿童组(捷克语样本)和2~7年级的正常发展儿童组(英语样本)进行的考察中(Caravolas et al.,2005),检验一致性正字法语言(捷克语)和非一致性正字法语言(英语)中语音意识对阅读和拼写的作用。通过因素删除和首音误置任务,研究发现语音意识在捷克语和英语当中都是一个显著的影响因素。

第二,语音意识能力预测的差异可能部分源于阅读能力评估方法的不同。英语人群的研究主要关注阅读准确性,而正字法规则一致的语言研究(儿童可以在早期取得很高的水平)则主要关注个人阅读速度方面的差异。

第三,不同跨语言研究中使用的RAN任务类型(字母—数字型或非字母—数字型)会对研究结果产生影响。对幼儿园学生的研究普遍避免使用字母—数字型的RAN任务,因为北美和欧洲的儿童不熟悉字母和数字(例如,de Jong & van der Leij,1999;Georgiou et al.,2006;Papadopoulos et al.,2009;Parrila et al.,2004)。然而,比起字母—数字型任务,非字母—数字型的RAN任务与阅读的相关性没那么强(Araújo et al.,in press;Song et al.,2015)。与此相反,中国幼儿园儿童研究主要使用数字RAN,并证明RAN对儿童将来的阅读有显著的预测作用(例如,Li et al.,2012;McBride-Chang & Ho,2000;Tong,McBride-Chang,Shu,& Wong,2009;Wei et al.,2014;Yeung et al.,2011)。原因在于中国儿童3岁进入幼儿园,并且接受过大量的数字命名练习,汉语中的数字命名RAN比字母正字法语言中的RAN数字命名在自动化和速度方面的影响要大得多(Wei,Georgiou,& Deng,出版中)。因此,即便是在不同语言中使用了RAN数字任务(例如,McBride-Chang & Kail,2002),相同年龄儿童快速命名数字的自动化水平也是不同的。

第四,不同的研究者对于“什么样的语言可被称作一致性语言”的观点不同。这就导致了非优化对比,使得结果不能真实揭示正字法规则一致性不尽相同的语言之间的差异。比如,一项涉及各种正字法语言的元分析指出(Florit & Cain,2011),在正字法规则一致性不尽相同的语言中,再编码的预测价值和阅读理解中的语言理解有所不同。分析发现,对于阅读初学者来说,虽然其在一致性正字法语言中的听力理解比再编码对阅读理解的作用更大,但是在英语中再编码对阅读理解的影响更强,甚至在高年级学生中也是如此。但是在该研究中,除了英语之外,每一种语言都被归入“一致性”正字法组,这种分类是有问题的,因为法语或荷兰语的正字法规则与芬兰语、希腊语、意大利语或西班牙语是不一致的(Seymour et al.,2003)。比如,相对于芬兰语来说,法语更接近于英语。因此,将法语研究中的实验结果与芬兰语、希腊语或意大利语的结果相结合,而不与英语的研究结果相结合,很可能影响了研究者的结论。

最后,两项汉语研究给出了很好的例证,其结果可能部分源于统计分析中没有排除其他影响因素变量的情况下得出的(McBride-Chang et al.,2005;McBride-Chang & Kail,2002)。比如,语音意识在高效单词识别发展方面可能是一个必要条件,但不一定是充分条件(例如,Scarborough,1998;Share & Stanovich,1995)。尤其是在拼音文字语言中,研究更多地关注了正字法加工,即在加工书面或口头语时使用正字法信息的过程(Wagner & Barker,1994),并将其作为早期跨语言阅读发展的另一个潜在差异来源。

因此,人们自然会问,那么我们离阅读的普遍理论还有多远?本文清晰地展示出,目前存在的分歧比共识还要多。不同的语言、不同的被试年龄、不同的测量手段、不同的统计分析、考虑的加工技能的不同,都会得出各不相同的研究结果。比如,在没有控制RAN和字母知识作用的前提下,在一致性正字法中证明语音意识对学习阅读的重要性(例如,Caravolas et al.,2005;Rothou,Padeliadou,& Sideridis,2013),或是在没有控制语素意识作用的前提下,证明语音意识对汉语阅读的重要性(例如,McBride-Chang & Ho,2000;Tan,Spinks,Eden,Perfetti,& Siok,2005),这些做法并不能提高我们对特定语言的理解,以及对阅读的普遍影响因素的理解。本文还强调,在我们对不同语音加工技能(相似的讨论见Perfetti,Cao,& Booth,2013)的重要性做出任何结论之前,还要考虑非拼音正字法语言(如中文、日文)的情况。

总之,在多种因素和技能中,正字法深度只是可能会影响读写习得的一个维度,另外一个维度是不同正字法中表音符号集的大小(Nag,2014)。有研究者将大符号编制的正字法语言称为“延伸性正字法”,将有限符号编制的正字法称作“抑制性正字法”(Nag,2014)。例如,使用200~600个符号的印度语正字法是延伸性正字法,而只有24~41个字母的拼音正字法是抑制性正字法。由于学习延伸性正字法的符号集是个吃力、冗长的过程,且远远超过了小学教育水平(例如,Nag & Snowling,2012),那么至少该过程所使用的认知技能与那些学习抑制性正字法语言所使用的认知技能存在部分差异。

摘要Abstract

In this chapter, I review the literature in three groups of cross-linguistic studies: (1) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in alphabetic orthographies varying in orthographic consistency, (2) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in alphabetic orthographies and Chinese, and (3) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in children learning two orthographies at the same time.The purpose is to identify common patterns in the relationship between phonological processing (phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological short-term memory) and literacy skills across languages.Clearly, the findings in all three groups of studies are mixed.This suggests that we are far from a universal theory of literacy acquisition.Firm conclusions about the role of phonological processing skills on reading and spelling across languages cannot be drawn because of differences between studies in their design (some being longitudinal, some being concurrent or cross-sectional), differences between studies on the measures used to operationalize the constructs of interest, differences between studies in the age of the participants, and differences between studies in the languages included and the orthographic distance between each other.

Keywords

reading, spelling, cross-linguistic, psycholinguistic grain size theory, phonological processing, rapid naming, phonological awareness

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[1] 加拿大阿尔伯塔大学(University of Alberta)

[2] 一种强化随意“符号—声音”联结学习能力的措施。——编者注

[3] 谚文,是指朝鲜语的表音文字。——编者注

[4] 当用汉字,日本的国语实施措施之一。《当用汉字表》公布的1850个汉字,为现代日本国语中日常使用的汉字书写范围。——编者注