2014年北京外国语大学815语言学考研真题及参考答案

考试科目：外国语言学及应用语言学

I. Explain the following terms with examples. (50 points, 5 points each)

1．prosodic feature

【答案】Prosodic features are suprasegmental. They are not confined to any one segment, but occur in some higher level of an utterance. These prosodic units are the actual phonetic “spurts”, or chunks of speech. They need not correspond to grammatical units such as phrases and clauses, though they may; and these facts suggest insights into how the brain processes speech. Prosodic units are marked by phonetic cues. Phonetic cues can include aspects of prosody such as pitch, pauses, and accents, all of which are cues that must be analyzed in context, or in comparison to other aspects of a sentence.

2．lingua franca

【答案】A lingua franca also called a bridge language, trade language, or vehicular language, is a language systematically (opposed to occasionally) used to make communication possible between persons not sharing a native language, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both native languages. Lingua franca is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic history or structure of the language: though pidgins and creoles often function as lingua francas, many such languages are neither pidgins nor creoles.

3．parameters

【答案】Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Adjacency Parameter: With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the [+strict adjacency] value, while for French-type languages, the parameter is set to the [-strict adjacency] value. Directionality parameter: Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, the Directionality parameter.

4．free morpheme

【答案】Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme.

5．linguistic relativity

【答案】The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world, i.e. their world view, or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. Popularly known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined to include two versions. The strong version says that language determines thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas the weak version says only that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior.

6．maxims of conversation

【答案】It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:

The maxim of quantity

①Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of quality

①Do not say what you believe to be false.

②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of relation

Be relevant.

The maxim of manner

①Avoid obscurity of expression.

②Avoid ambiguity.

③Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)

④Be orderly.

7．semantic narrowing

【答案】Narrowing of meaning happens when a word with a general meaning is by degrees applied to something much more specific. The word litter, for example, meant originally (before 1300) ‘a bed,’ then gradually narrowed down to ‘bedding,’ then to ‘animals on a bedding of straw,’ and finally to things scattered about, odds and ends. Other examples of specialization are deer, which originally had the general meaning ‘animal,’ girl, which meant originally ‘a young person,’ and meat, whose original meaning was ‘food.’”

8．topicalization

【答案】Topicalizations emphasis placed on the topic or focus of a sentence by proposing it to the beginning of the sentence; placing the topic at the beginning of the sentence is typical for English “`Those girls, they giggle when they see me’ and `Cigarettes, you couldn’t pay me to smoke them’ are examples of topicalization”.

9．reference

【答案】Reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object. The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second object. The second object—the one to which the first object refers—is called the referent of the first object. The term reference is used in many spheres of human knowledge, adopting shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used.

10．language localization

【答案】Language localization is the process of adapting a product that has been previously translated into different languages to a specific country or region. It is the second phase of a larger process of product translation and cultural adaptation to account for differences in distinct markets, a process known as internationalization and localization. Language localization differs from translation activity because it involves a comprehensive study of the target culture in order to correctly adapt the product to local needs.

II. Read the following passage and then answer questions. (40 points)

The Ecology of Language Acquisition

Figure 1 The ecology of language acquisition (Brown 1991)

1．Describe two of the following models of SLA (5 points each,10 points in total)

acculturation model

competition model

computational model

emergentist models

inter-group model

multidimensional model

nativization model

socio-educational model

universal grammar model

【答案】acculturation model: In SLA, the Acculturation Model is a theory proposed by John Schumann to describe the acquisition process of a second language (L2) by members of ethnic minorities, that typically include immigrants, migrant workers, or the children of such groups. This very acquisition process takes place in natural contexts of majority language setting. The main suggestion of the theory is that the acquisition of a second language is directly linked to the acculturation process, and learners’ success is determined by the extent to which they can orient themselves to the target language culture.

competition model: The Competition Model is a psycholinguistic theory of language acquisition and sentence processing developed by Elizabeth Bates and Brian MacWhinney. The Competition Model posits that the meaning of language is interpreted by comparing a number of linguistic cues within a sentence, and that language is learned through the competition of basic cognitive mechanisms in the presence of a rich linguistic environment. It is an emergentist theory of language acquisition and processing, serving as an alternative to strict nativist and empiricist theories.

computational model: A computational model is a mathematical model in computational science that requires extensive computational resources to study the behavior of a complex system by computer simulation.[citation needed] The system under study is often a complex nonlinear system for which simple, intuitive analytical solutions are not readily available. Rather than deriving a mathematical analytical solution to the problem, experimentation with the model is done by adjusting the parameters of the system in the computer, and studying the differences in the outcome of the experiments.

emergentist models: In philosophy, emergentism is the belief in emergence, particularly as it involves consciousness and the philosophy of mind, and as it contrasts with reductionism. A property of a system is said to be emergent if it is in some sense more than the “sum” of the properties of the system’s parts. An emergent property is said to be dependent on some more basic properties, so that it can have no separate existence. However, a degree of independence is also asserted of emergent properties, so that they are not identical to, or reducible to, or predictable from, or deducible from their bases.

inter-group model: Giles and Byrne (1982) identify a number of factors that contribute to a group’s ethnolinguistic vitality. They discuss the conditions under which subordinate group members are more likely to acquire native-like proficiency in the dominant group’s language.

multidimensional model: This model has been regarded as a representative of the interactionist approach to SLA. Language learning is through both innate and environmental factors. Language acquisition is assumed to proceed along two dimensions: developmental and varied. In the process of acquiring the grammatical structures of an L2, learners manifest: developmental sequences and individual variation between learners.

nativization model: In this model, learners make the input conform to their own internalized view of what constitutes the L2 system. It is based on the general assumption that those features that are easily attended to and easily processes will be the first to be learnt and thus to be used in production.

socio-educational model: This is a general theoretical model designed explicitly for the language learning situation, and is applicable to both foreign and second language learning contexts. It has three important features. First, it satisfies the scientific requirement of parsimony in that it involves a limited number of operationally defined constructs. Second, it has associated with it the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) that yields reliable assessments of its major constructs, permitting empirical tests of the model. Third, it is concerned with the motivation to learn and become fluent in another language, and not simply with task and/or classroom motivation.

universal grammar model: Universal grammar (UG) is a theory in linguistics, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. The theory suggests that linguistic ability manifests itself without being taught, and that there are properties that all natural human languages share. It is a matter of observation and experimentation to determine precisely what abilities are innate and what properties are shared by all languages. The basic concept of UG are principles and parameters. They reveal the commonalities and differences between natural languages respectively.

2．What motivated the author to “create a different ‘picture’ of language acquisition” (line 7)? (5points)

【答案】Because “I have struggled over the years with the complexities of the kinds of models of SLA. I have read. Such models, in their graphic or flow chart form, always appear to be so mechanical. Some of them more closely resemble the wiring diagrams pasted on the back of electric stoves than what I like to imagine the human brain must “look” like. Or certainly than the way our organic world operates!” That is ,the desire to create more simple and vivid models of language acquisition motivated the author to “create a different ‘picture’ of language acquisition.

3．What SLA model would you label the one he describes? (5 points)

【答案】I think the SLA model he describes is Universal grammar model. He regarded the process of language acquisition as an ecology system, which means everything in this system is related to each other and cannot be separated.

4．What is the difference between “input” (line 17) and “intake” (line 24)? (5 points)

【答案】Input is used to refer to the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a native speaker or by another L2 learner. The language to which the learner is exposed. It can be spoken or written. Input serves as the data which the learner must use to determine rules of the target language. (Ellis, 1986)

Not all the available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or some of it is not attend to. That part of the input that is processed or “let in” will be referred to as intake.

Corder (1967) distinguished between input and intake. “Input is what is available to learners. Intake is what is internalized by learners.” Input is everything around us we may perceive with our senses. Intake is what we pay attention to and notice.

5．What are “genetically transmitted processes” (lines 17-18). (5 points)

【答案】The “genetically transmitted processes” refers to the language acquisition device(LAD). The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical module of the human mind posited to account for children’s innate predisposition for language acquisition. First proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s, the LAD concept is an instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language. It is component of the nativist theory of language. This theory asserts that humans are born with the instinct or “innate facility” for acquiring language. The main argument in favor of the LAD is the argument from the poverty of the stimulus, which argues that unless children have significant innate knowledge of grammar they would be unable to learn language as quickly as they do, given that they never have access to negative evidence and rarely received direct instruction in their first language.

6．What is the relationship between “inferred competence” (line 23) and “full-flowering communicative abilities” (line 26)? (5 points)

【答案】The relationship between “inferred competence” and “full-flowering communicative abilities” refers to the relationship between competence and communicative competence. In accordance with Hymes, language competence refers to not only make sentences obey the grammatical rules, but also use the language appropriately. He put forward communicative competence that is antagonistic to Chomsky’s language competence. Hymes thought, Chomsky’s thought only involves language rules but ignores the social rules which is the important characteristic of communicative functions as a social phenomenon. In his view, competence is the ability to communicate in a particular environment with using language smoothly. That is to say, one’s communicative competence includes not only language knowledge, but also the ability to use language appropriately in social environment. Training the four basic language skills—listening, speaking, reading, writing—should reflect the interdependence of language and communication.

7．What is the relationship between “communicative abilities” (ibid.) and “The fruit of our performance” (line 27)? (5 points)

【答案】The relationship between “communicative abilities” and “The fruit of our performance” means the relationship between competence and performance. Competence is an ability to recognize and understand sentences, including summarizing the language materials and deducing them to the language rules and regular sentences. He thought, language refers to the ability of the speakers’ and listeners’ internal knowledge. Competence is the speakers’ underlying linguistic knowledge and the abstract master to language system. Performance is just the actual behavior of competence. Although performance is derived from competence, it’s not equal to competence. Performance is unique and diverse, and always dependent on the environment. Competence is an abstract concept that is full of details but unable to confirm. They are totally two fundamentally different phenomenon.

Language competence and language performance are interdependent and complementary to each other.

On the one hand, language competence is the premise of language performance. Competence is to performance what composer’s skills is to composing or improvising music. Without solid language skills cannot gain a good ability of language use.

On the other hand, to improve the ability of language performance can enhance and consolidate the lever of language competence. Performance is reflected in the competence, since language ability is not equal to have the ability to use the language. Performance can neither be replaced by nor improve in pace with competence, but to gain by training and practicing.

III. 根据上文所附图1的内容，用中文写一篇短文，描述语言的习得。要求尽量使用图中出现的语汇，文中不得夹杂英语。（60分）

【答案】加斯从认知心理学的角度描绘了人脑认知机制习得语言的流程图。将语言输入区分为被注意的语言输入和被理解的语言输入。她认为，被注意的语言输入是语言习得的第一阶段，由语言输入中能引起学习者注意的特征以及学习者目前的二语知识组成，不是所有已被注意的语言输入都能被学习者理解。同样，不是所有已被理解的语言输入都被学习者大脑吸收。在目标语输入和学习者规则内化的过程中存在一个语言摄人的过程。被学习者吸收的语言输入只有被整合后，这些语言输入才会成为学习者隐性知识的一部分。另外，有些语言输入如果经过处理后还未能融人中介语系统，则会以二语项目和规则明显的表征被储存起来，成为显性知识。显性知识可通过监控促进语言输出，可促使语言吸收的形成。

语言习得流程如下：