It is not necessary to explain why medical knowledge invariably grew out of the soil of primitive production methods, life and archaic thinking. Therefore, “inseparability of healing arts and witchcraft” was not only a historical necessity, but was in fact the only way our ancestors in primitive societies could know their own body and soul, and life and health.

In 1995, a 5,000 year-old human skeleton was excavated in Dawenkou, site of ancient culture remains, in Guangyao, Shandong Province. There was a 31mm×25mm hole on the right parietal bone, around which there was noticeable traces of scraping and bone tissue repair. In the same tomb, stone axes with holes, bone combs and needles with eyes were unearthed as well. This is the earliest extant evidence of cranial drilling.

A skull with a large, obtuse triangular hole, dated to about 4,000 years ago, was unearthed in Yangshan, Minhe County, Qinghai Province. Bone spurs and blurred scraping marks around the hole reveal that the patient survived for a long time after the procedure.

The motivation and reasoning behind such procedures have lost in the mists of history and we will never know whether it was a “craniotomy” or a kind of primitive, religious ritual. We can only speculate based on what we assume to be the inseparability of our ancestors’ physical disorders and their spiritual desires were an inseparable unified entity.

Our remote ancestors gradually learned to heal themselves with stone or bone tools in the struggle against diseases. This was the sprout that would grow into the fascinating practice of acupuncture.

A polished stone needle made in the Neolithic Age was unearthed in Inner Mongolia in 1963. One end of the needle was sharp-pointed and shaped like a pyramid. The other end was flat and in the shape of an arc knife.

Two conical Bian stones were unearthed in the Longshan Culture Remains in Rizhao Liangchen Town, Shandong Province. One was a piece of grey stone in the shape of a cylinder that was intended for healing. The two ends were in the shape of a triangular pyramid and a cone, respectively. The other finding was a piece of green stone in the shape of cylinder with a pyramid-shaped, sharp point. They were used to do shallow puncture on the body and to pierce boils or carbuncles.

There are 323 pieces of oracle bones with 415 inscriptions concerning diseases. These are dated to about three thousand years ago. About 20 disease names were recorded.

The content of the inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells includes some knowledge of the body, diseases and treatment in the Shang Dynasty （16 ^th century-11 ^th century B.C.）. Understandings of the human body and diseases were naturally contained in the characters, such as head, ear, eye, nose, mouth, tongue, tooth, nape, arm, butocks, toe, and heart. The heart character is the only zang-organ named in the inscriptions. In terms of diseases, there are such terms as head disorder, ear disorder, eye disorder and nose disorder.

In addition, names of special disorders like“疟, nüè” （alternation of chills and fever）, “疥, jiè”（scabies）, “蛊, gŭ”（mental disorder） and “龋, qŭ ” （tooth decay） and symptoms like ringing in the ears, diarrhea, sleeplessness, having a weak and feeble body, and dizziness were recorded.

The inscriptions also involved seasonal epidemical diseases, and diseases caused by excess rain, indicating special atention was paid to epidemic diseases.

Like almost all cultures in the world, myth was important to our ancient Chinese ancestors. Myth reflected the desires of early humans to understand and control their natural environment. Chinese nation’s unique view of the universe including the theory of yin-yang and original qi, as well as the correspondence between humans and the universe, all without exception originated from ancient myths.

”Don’t ask me where I come from! The question of human origins has always been a mystery. Qu Yuan, a great poet of China, said,“who can tell us what it was like in remote antiquity? They say there was primordial chaos, but how do we really know that? Who could really explore the mysterious ultimate?” ^[1]

The great myth of the Pan Gu creating heaven and earth has satisfied people’s desire to know our origins throughout the ages. The myth tells that a long long time ago the universe was just a chaotic mass, rather like an egg. A man named Pan Gu was born in it. 18,000 years later, the universe separated, and pure yang ascended to form the heavens, while turbid yin descended to form the earth. Standing right in between the heaven and the earth, Pan Gu changed his body nine times in one day. Finally he became a giant with his head holding up the heavens and his feet stamping on the earth. After his death, his breath turned into wind and clouds, his voice turned into thunder, his left eye turned into the moon and his right eye turned into the sun. His head and four limbs became mountains, his blood became rivers and lakes, his muscles and flesh became fields, and his skin and body hairs became grasses and woods. Many of the small insects on his body turned into human beings.

Legend has it that Nü Wa, a goddess, had a human head and a snake body. At the beginning of the world, there were no human beings. Nü Wa molded yellow clay into human figures. To speed up the process, she put ropes into the clay and then held the ropes high to let the clay drop into clumps and the clumps of clay changed into human beings. Before long, human beings could be seen everywhere. The image of the human head and snake body of Nü Wa, and the yellow clay used to create human beings reflected the totem worship of the people in that region and the matriarchal nature of the clan.

Another legend about the birth of Fu Xi and Nü Wa has it that at the initial period of the world Fu Xi and Nü Wa lived in the Kunlun Mountains. At that time there were no human beings in the world. They wanted to be tied to each other in bonds of matrimony, but they felt ashamed. They went to the top of the mountain and prayed for a sign. If the Heavens approved of them becoming husband and wife, two plumes of smoke would rise up from the wood fire. They obtained their heart’s desire and got married. The marital status of our ancient ancestors in the matriarchal clan society created legends such as, “sages did not have their fathers, but were born from the heaven interaction.” ^[2]

Use of fire was the great invention of humans.

Legend has it that in ancient times there was a tree named Sui in the Suiming Kingdom.It had twisted roots and gnarled branches, and occupied a large area. A sage was roaming through this area and stopped to have a rest under it. He saw a bird pecking the tree and bringing out sparks of fire. He had an epiphany and made fire with wood out of chiseling. He was called Suirenshi.

Legend tells us that in remote antiquity, in the south of China, there lived the God of Fire, and his name was Zhu Rong. He had a human face and an animal body. Riding two dragons, he brought light to the world. Since the oven was used for making fires and cooking food, the kitchen god was also the God of Fire. In the legends, Yan Di and Huang Di all served as the God of Fire at some point.

Ancient China had an agrarian economy. The “Five Altars”—to the Heavens, Earth, Sun, Moon and Agriculture were built in Beijing in the Ming Dynasty （1368-1644 A.D.）. These clearly illustrate the fact that our Chinese ancestors deeply respected Heaven and agriculture, and this is an important part of our historical and cultural inheritance.

Legend has it that Shen Nong, or Yan Di lived in Jiangshui （present in the area of Qishan, Shaanxi Province）. He had an ox face and human body. He found that people had short lives because they usually consumed raw animal meat and drank river water. He looked round for edible plants. He tasted more than one hundred kinds of herbs and grasses and got poisoned frequently, but he found other detoxifying herbs to cure himself. Through this process he discovered medicinal herbs. Heaven was touched by his benevolent actions, and sent seeds falling from the sky to help him. In addition, he invented the plough and taught people to sow seeds at the appropriate times.

Legend has it that Fuxishi also known as Tai Hao, taught people to hunt, fish and raise livestock. He reigned over his kingdom for 115 years. In short, he invented Chinese characters, formulated social order and law, and created image numerology.

There was a mountain named Gua Tai in Tianshui, Gansu Province. It is said to be where Fu Xi drew Bagua （Eight Trigrams）. At that time people knew little about nature, so they were scared and puzzled by rain, wind, lightning and thunder. Fu Xi wanted to figure out what was behind them, so he often stood on the mountain to observe the heavenly bodies above and the topography below. He also studied the footprints and marks of animals and birds. One day while on the mountain, he heard an unusual roaring. A strange horse leaped out of a cave opposite the mountain. Fu Xi named it dragon-horse because the horse had a dragon head but a horse body with unique pictures on its skin. The horse jumped onto a big rock in the Wei Shui River, which was at the foot of the mountain. The rock was shaped like the tai ji symbol. Seeing the marks on the dragon-horse, Fu Xi was suddenly enlightened and made the Eight Trigrams.

Myths about the origin of traditional Chinese medicine show the hardships our Chinese ancestors had to go through as they tried to maintain health and fight against diseases.

The Records of Court Historian says, “The birth of traditional Chinese medicine was when Shennongshi tasted one hundred kinds of herbs and grasses.” ^[3]

He taught people farming, and how to plant the five cereals as food. He tasted herbs and grasses and he used those effectively to treat illnesses. Finally, he compiled The Materia Medica （ Bĕn Căo, 本草） in four volumes.

Huang Di was the most famous hero or deity in Chinese myths.

According to historical records, Huang Di was born by the riverside of Jishui. Ji was his surname. Legend has it that his mother was Fu Bao, the Earth Goddess. He was very bright as a child. He had a yellow dragon body with four faces. He had the capacity to control all the gods, birds and beasts, and he was able to manage wind, rain, thunder and lightning. He could make yin qi and yang qi interact. Thunder and lightning were the result of their mutual vibration and agitation. When yin and yang were blended, rain formed. When yin and yang were in a mess, fog appeared, which coagulated into frost, dispersed into dew, gathered together into clouds, and rose into rainbows and double rainbows.

Almost all of the discoveries of the Chinese ancestors are attributed to Huang Di and his officials. According to legends, they built palaces and houses, made pottery wares, carts and boats, clothes, costumes and official hats. They invented Chinese characters, bamboo pitch-pipes, mathematics, the calendar, and music.

Huang Di, was considered the sage of medicine, and formulated medical classics based on Shen Nong’s experience of the nature and flavor of the one hundred kinds of herbs tasted by him and used in the treatment of illnesses. Huang Di had discussions with his officials about medicine, and compiled medical canons based on these. He passed his knowledge of medicine on to his subjects. In a word, he is the supreme founder of medicine in China.

Acupuncture is one of the primary treatment modalities in traditional Chinese medicine.

In the Neolithlic Age, our ancestors knew how to sharpen stones to produce relatively fine needles, known as “ Bian stone”. These were used to puncture the skin to expel disorders or illnesses. “ Bian stones” are the oldest known medical instrument in China.

The Elucidations of Script and Explications of Characters （ Shuō Wén Jiĕ Zì, 说文解字） states, “ Bian are stones used to puncture for treating diseases”. ^[4] These stones are sharp and pointed at one end and have an incisive edge. They were therefore used both to puncture sites on the body to remove illness and as primitive surgical instruments. According to historical records, Fu Xi tasted one hundred kinds of herbs and plants in order to discern their medicinal qualities, and was also the inventor of the “nine kinds of needles” used to treat patients.

Carved stones of the Han Dynasty （206 B.C.-220 A.D.） unearthed from tombs in Liangcheng, Weishan County, Shandong Province, reveal images of a half-bird, half-human figure holding what appears to be an acupuncture needle in one hand preparing to puncture the skin of a person standing in front of this figure. Textual research confirms that this is the legendary physician Bian Que.

A decoction refers to medicinal substances prepared as a liquid by boiling in potery ware. This has been the primary mode of administration of herbal medicines for many centuries. The Xia Dynasty （21 ^th century-16 ^th century B.C.） produced fine potery wares, and by the time of the Shang Dynasty （16 ^th century-11 ^th century B.C.）they were widely used for making decoctions. Improved food processing also made good decoctions possible.

It is generally acknowledged that decoction-making in the form of multiple-herb formulas began in the Shang Dynasty （16 ^th century-11 ^th century B.C.）. Before that time, herbal decoctions usually only contained a large dose of one herb or other medicinal substance, presumably leading to side efects and occasional toxic reactions.

According to the The Records of Court Historian, Yi Yin was a slave responsible for cooking for the imperial family. He was intelligent and could make various delicious dishes. Most importantly, he knew how to treat diseases with food. Based on his profound knowledge, he developed decoctions.

Mister Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals （ Lǚ Shì Chūn Qiū, 吕氏春秋） records that one day he had a discussion about the treatment of illness with the ruler of the Shang Dynasty （16 ^th century-11 ^th century B.C.）. He said, “weeding through the old to bring forth the new can open the interstices, generate essence and expel evil qi, so that one can enjoy a long and full life.” ^[5]

Legend states that Ji Dai-ji was the teacher of the Imperial Doctor and Minister Qi Bo, and the earliest known professional doctor in ancient China. He had knowledge of pulse-taking and understood the law of the changes of yin and yang, and the relationship between the metal, wood, water, fire and earth phases, the four seasons, the eight wind conditions and the universe. Pulse-taking could reveal these changes and their effects on the human body.

According to legend, Qi Bo was Huang Di’s ofcial imperial doctor and advisor. He was instructed by Huang Di to taste plants and compile books on medicine and formulas. Medical works like the Basic Questions （ Huáng Dì Nèi Jīng Sù Wèn, 黄帝内经素问） and The Spiritual Pivot （ Líng Shū, 灵枢） are said to be part of his early contributions to medicine. Huang Di and Qi Bo discussed the theory and practice of medicine, and the book entitled The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, records their conversations.

Yu Fu, an official under the ruler Huang Di, was said to be skilled at surgery, being rarely found in ancient times according to legends.

The Record of the Court Historian says, “in ancient times there was a healer called Yu Fu, who used neither herbal decoctions nor acupuncture with Bian stones in the treatment of illness, but instead used surgery.” Legend has it that Yu Fu was able to bring the dead back to life.

Lei Gong and Tong Jun were court physicians of Huang Di. Lei Gong was proficient in traditional methods of processing medicinal herbs. After his death, a book entitled Master Lei’s Discourse on Medicinal Processing （Léi Gōng Páo Zhì Lùn, 雷公炮炙论） was atributed to him. The book discussed the processing methods for various medicinal substances, and how the medicinal efects change afer processing.

According to The Complete Compendium of Ancient and Modern Medical Works （GŭJīn Yī Tŏng Dà Quán, 古今医统大全）, Tong Jun was skilled in designating herbal properties. He knew the properties of plant, metal and mineral substances. Medicinal substances were classified into three grades, and their suitability for serving as the chief, deputy, assistant and envoy herbs was outlined. He laid the foundation for the theory of herbal properties.

In ancient times, pestilence was one of the main threats to people’s health.

Legend has it that Bo Qiang was a “hateful pestilence ghost”, who brought harm to people wherever he went. Another legendary malevolent spirit named Zhuanxushi had three sons who became pestilence ghosts after his death.

Fang Xiang had bearskin-like hands and four eyes that sent out golden light. He wore a black shirt and a red skirt, and always carried a huge ax in his hand. Whenever he shot an arrow, he hit the target without fail. One day, torch in hand, he dashed forward and drove the pestilence ghosts far away to remote places. Then yin and yang in the universe blended with each other, which promoted the growth of all things on earth. This tale has a far-reaching influence on Chinese culture, and the exorcism practiced among people today in his name indicates the endurance of the folk custom of ritually driving out pestilence.

These myths have been passed down by oral tradition since ancient times, and they tell us something important about medical and health care activities of early humans. They reveal how our ancestors understood themselves and how they persistently sought to understand the true nature of the world.