Chinese Cultural Diplomacy

In China，public diplomacy（公共外交）is both a strategic and functional tool（Hartig，2016），in contrast to which cultural diplomacy cultural diplomacy（文化外交）is to be understood in terms of striving towards soft power and image-building efforts. In addition，Zhao（2015）notes that Chinese refer to two notions of the Western understanding of public diplomacy：

（1）External propaganda（对外宣传）：understood as global diffusion of Chinese success towards over seas audience and thus related to the system of state publicity；（2）People-to-people diplomacy（民间外交）.

Different studies have focused on China’s cultural diplomacy（e.g. Zhang，2017）and emphasized that these etymological differences are related to the different traditions of diplomatic thought and history of the country，being shaped by blending the country’s vision of development，opening up and modernization with the revival of more traditional Confucionist and Daoist values and references（Zhang，2015）. That said，scholars highlight the role of ideational leadership as orienting factor on international politics，such as in the case of China. In assessing the structures of China’s cultural diplomacy，it is necessary to locate the analysis in the wider historical context of China’s development and foreign policy. While in the past，cultural diplomacy was pursed rather moderately，the recent years demonstrate how the country has stepped up its soft power initiatives and the greater inclination to grand narratives.

A brief history of Chinese cultural diplomacy

Chinese cultural development can briefly be divided into three phases：（1）The period from 1949-1978，during which the engagement with other countries is reduced，maintaining a focus on the Cultural Revolution，with culture as a tool to influence ideology；（2）The period from 1978-2000，during which the opening strategy led to increasing international interest； and the period from 2000 until now，which features the emphasis of the promotion Chinese culture and ideas abroad as a means of positioning and rebranding the image of the country.While in the past，cultural diplomacy was pursed rather moderately，the recent years demonstrate how the country has stepped up its soft power initiatives and inclination towards grand narratives. The rising narrative of China as not only a leader of economic development，but also as county with a rich cultural heritage has been further bolstered at political level. ‘Building cultural soft power’ was mentioned in the 12th Five-Year-Plan（2011-2015）and Chinese President Xi Jinping incorporated the concept of cultural soft power into the vision of the Chinese Dream（Liu，2017）.The leadership of President Xi furthermarked overall a stronger influencing of the rhetoric’s of international affairs and the Western-oriented liberal order，Huàyǔ quán（话语权 ）is concerned with the establishment of a discourse containing Chinese values and concepts.This has been outlined by Prof. Zhang Zhizhou（张志洲 ）：

To promote China’s international discourse power and break the basic pattern of international discourse power of “Western strong and we weak” requires strategic planning and reasonable and effective policy measures（State Council，2017）.[3]

Moreover，in 2016，the 29th meeting of the Leading Group for the Central Deepening of All-round Reforms was convened，and the “Guiding Opinions on Further Strengthening and Improving Chinese Cultural Outreach” was reviewed and adopted. This brief oversight shows that the cultural diplomacy has been tied to an ambitious agenda of getting its share at the global level.

Organization and actors of cultural diplomacy

China’s cultural diplomacy is expressed through an array of activities，cultural exchanges，local government initiatives，and civil society initiatives. Overall，the nature of cultural diplomacy features two central elements. First，cultural diplomacy is tied to the greater narratives，principles-based logic and policy guidance of central government actors.The combination of a long-term national agenda in terms of economic development as well as ideational/ideological underpinnings with diverse players creates a flexible platform and strong adaptive capabilities. Second，cultural diplomacy is less coordinated and reflects the complexity of the country’s national administrative and political system with the different layers and institutional cultures. This emphasizes the role of leveraging the collective weight and efforts to promote the desired outcomes as key. Thus，cultural diplomacy may happen at different levels，such as high-level or working-level and target different set of audiences，such as scholars，decision-makers in politics or public policy，business sector or the general public. In addition，Wang（2008）observes the origin of the blending of public affairs and public diplomacy in the Chinese political system.

The following offers an overview of actors of Chinese cultural diplomacy.

According to Cappelletti（2017），Chinese cultural diplomacy operates in a multi-centric infrastructure across broad networks，and while the state actors reflect the Party-state and economic interests，non-state actors can be encountered where there is a cultural，scholarly or cultural interest for China.

Key agents of cultural diplomacy are the government and party structures，including the International Communication Bureau of the Department of Publicity of the CPC Central Committee，the International Communication Office of the NPC（National People’s Congress）and the CPPCC（Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference），the Bureau of External Cultural Relations of the Ministry of Culture and of Education，and the news department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs，among others. With the number of actors，rather than following rather than following a national strategy of public or cultural diplomacy specifically，organizations follow rather specific under the umbrella of the general outline（Zhao，2015）. The CPC has the say in the ideological positioning，and according to Zhao（2015，p.181）：“communication and coordination between the Member of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee，the State Councillor，and ministers responsible for foreign affairs，as well as various official，semi-official，and non-governmental organizations related to public diplomacy…their positions and actions often provide crucial linkages between the top leader and specific programmes.”

Other state actors provincial and municipal organs，civil society groups，“people’s diplomacy” associations，intellectual elites，academic institutions，overseas Chinese institutions. In this regard，it is also valid to mention the Think Tank Strategy driven by the Chinese government（State Council，2015）. The 18th CPC Party Congress in 2013 encouraged the creation of think tanks with Chinese characteristics and in 2015 both State Council and CCP Central Committee joined efforts in forging the further consolidation of think tanks with Chinese characteristics（China News，2017），towards the establishment of internationally influential think tanks by the year of 2020.This implies close ties between research，policy and politics. For example，the Belt and Road（BRI）think-tank alliance was launched in 2015 State Council’s Development Research Center，Fudan University and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences（CASS）. Equally，the Silk Road Think Tank Association was launched in 2016 with the objective to “deepen people’s understanding for the development initiative，and avoid misunderstandings between countries”（China Daily，2016）.

●Involvement of business sector and civil society

Whereas the understanding of private sector in China may differ from Western contexts，Chinese companies have been involved in public and cultural diplomacy to the extent that they actively link foreign policy objectives and business interests. For example，the presence of Chinese SOEs and their corporate social responsibility programs are culturally implementing Chinese culture-oriented programs.

●Programmes and forms of cultural diplomacy

Diffusing language and cultural awareness and learning about China，but also to create a lasting effect on their image in China and influence opinion-building across different contexts.

Cultural，academic and exchange activities：One of the main instruments of Chinese cultural diplomacy abroad refers to the role of Confucius Institutes，administered by the Office of Chinese Language Council International（Hanban），affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education and composed of various other representatives from ministries and government agencies and occasional cooperation with other research institute’s or agencies. In 2017，there were a total of 516 Confucius Institutes and 1，076 Confucius Classrooms have been established in 142 countries and regions，according to the Confucius Institute Headquarters（China Daily，2017），founded in 1974 and opened its first Confucius Institute in South Korea in 2004（China Daily，2017）. As Hartig emphasis in his study on German Confucius Institutes that since cultural diplomacy is the means through which soft power is exercised，consequently，Confucius Institutes ca be grasped as instrument to China’s cultural diplomacy seeking to wield and bolster Chinese soft power globally（Hartig，2010，p.11）. Moreover，the Cultural Centre holds location in Europe with seven centres（Paris，Malta，Berlin，Moscow，Madrid Copenhagen and Brussels）； Africa（Mauritius，Benin，Cairo，Nigeria and Tanzania），Asia（Seoul，Tokyo，Ulaanbaatar，Bangkok，Laos，Sri Lanka，Pakistan，Nepal and Singapore）and in Mexico，Sidney，New Zealand and Fiji（Zhang，2016）. The institutes pursue different programmes and activities with a main focus on traditional culture.According to the same author what distinguishes the China Cultural Institute from the Confucius Institutes is the use of both official and informal domestic resources，collaborating with state-owned organizations and private enterprises，including performing groups and martial arts practitioners and contacts with the overseas Chinese diaspora（Zhang，2016）.

Media，publishing and information activities：The country has strongly invested in media and information activities. Dissemination through State Council Information Office，embassies，Xinhua，China Global Television Network，China Radio International，China Daily，Global Times，Social Media. Many Chinese media channels have multi-language TV channels and websites，taking their voice in the landscape of global communication with offices across the globe. Bilateral and multilateral media cooperation，trainings，and professional exchange agreements are the base for the expansion of China search to take a bigger stake in global communication. Thus，establishing relationships with foreign public can also take place at a more direct level. For example，an insert paid by China Daily，“China Watch” was featured in major global newspapers，such as the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal，amongst others.

In this sense，the slogan “Borrow a Ship to Reach the Sea” summarizes the efforts to impact on overseas markets. This can be for example seen in a recent case ofthepublishingindustry：

However，in order to truly achieve the world，the Chinese publishing industry must increase its efforts to “build ships to the sea”，further innovate ways，and constantly open up the road to the world. In this regard，many countries have relatively mature experience for reference. In some developed countries in Europe and America，the publication of “going out” is not limited to the export of books in kind，special funds and specialized talents “going out”，and using soft power to influence hard power has become a model. In addition，the publication of exhibitions and non-traded publications around the world can also pass on the culture to the world. Only by continuously building new platforms and opening new channels can we expand the international coverage of China’s excellent books and make Chinese publishing truly a window for the world to understand China.（Xinhua News Agency，2016）.

This emphatic demand for framing China in literature and the publishing industry shows：There is a growing tendency for initiatives seeking to exercise influence on media content，as well influence the tone of political discussions and agenda-setting，referring back to the establishment of a discourse-system supporting the successful positioning of the government abroad.

Sports and large-scale events：There are also events which to a certain degree dialogue with Chinese cultural diplomacy，the possibility for image-building and the opportunity for bringing in cultural diplomacy events：Beijing Olympic Games，Shanghai Expo，APEC Beijing Summit，2016 G20 Hangzhou Summit in 2016，2017 Belt and Road Summit in Beijing and 2017 BRICS Summit in Xiamen.[4]

To conclude，this section outlined the forms Chinese cultural diplomacy is practiced abroad，as well as the foundational ideas and positions behind it. In the following part，an explorative approach follows Wyszomirski et al.（2003，p. 3）in specifically looking out for the following activities and mechanisms，the exchange for educational and cultural purposes； exhibitions and performances abroad； sponsoring seminars and conferences both in-country and abroad that include international participants； promotion of language studies and cultural related programmes and institutions，including staff and personnel； support for country studies programmes； cooperation on cultural issues as well as trade activities for cultural goods and services.