第二章 中国文化的类型和主要特征 Chapter 2 Types and Main Features of Chinese Culture

第一节 中国文化的类型 Section 1 Types of Chinese Culture

从文化的内容和社会功能等方面来看，人类文化的类型可分为三种:以人与他人为核心的中国伦理政治型文化; 以人与自然为核心的古希腊科学型文化; 以人与自身关系为核心的印度宗教型文化。从精神角度来看可以将人类文化分为三类:意欲型的西方文化; 调和持中型的中国文化; 反身向后型的印度文化。(梁漱溟《东西文化及其哲学》)

任何一种文化类型的产生都离不开特定的自然条件和社会历史条件，即在特定自然地理环境下的物质生产方式和社会组织结构。从地理环境看，中国处于一种半封闭状态的大陆性自然环境，与西方地中海沿岸国家的地理环境大不相同; 从物质生产方式看，封建性质的小农经济在中国有几千年的历史，中国文化扎根于农业社会的基础之上，这与中亚和西亚地区的游牧民族以及工商业比较发达的海洋民族有很大区别; 从社会组织结构看，在中国漫长的历史中宗法制度成为维系社会秩序的重要纽带，专制制度在中国延续了两千年，这在世界文化史上也是极为罕见的。

Human culture can be divided into three types from the angle of its content and social function，i.e.，Chinese ethics-politics-oriented culture with human being and others as the core; ancient Greek science-oriented culture with human and nature as the core; Indian-religion-oriented culture with human and itself as the core.Human culture can also be divided into three categories from the angle of spirit，i.e.，intention-oriented western culture; compromise-oriented Chinese culture; reversing-backward-oriented Indian culture.(Liang Shuming，Culture and Philosophy in China and Western Countries)

The form of any type of culture is inseparable from the specific natural and historical conditions，namely，material production mode and social structure under specific geographical environment.From the angle of geographical environment， China belongs to semi-closed continental one，which is quite different from that of Mediterranean countries.From the angle of material production mode，the feudal small-scale farming economy in China has a history of several thousand years.Chinese culture is rooted on the basis of agricultural society，which is quite different from those of the nomads in central and western Asian area and those of marine nations with highly developed industry and commerce.From the angle of social structure，patriarchal clan system has become an important link to maintain social order in the long history of China，making autocratic monarchy last for two thousand years in China，which is extremely rare in the history of world culture.

伦理政治型的中国传统文化不仅在人们的意识形态方面有着久远的影响，而且还深刻地影响着传统社会心理和人们的行为规范，如孝亲敬祖、尊师崇古、修己务实、不佞鬼神、乐天安命等。正因为如此，斯宾格勒才把道德灵魂当作中国文化的基本象征符号。黑格尔说:“中国文化完全建立在一种道德的结合上，国家的特性便是客观的家庭孝道。”如果把西方的文化视为 “智性文化”，那么中国文化则可以称为 “德性文化”。这种说法有一定的道理。但是，中国传统文化重 “德”而不轻 “智”，是一种德智统一、以德摄智的文化。

中国文化的伦理型特征，主要源于中国古代社会宗法制度的完善及其影响。与独特的宗法制度相联系的血亲意识，即所谓 “六亲”(父子、兄弟、夫妇)、 “九族”(父族四、母族三、妻族二)的观念构成社会意识的轴心，而且其形态愈益精密化。经过历代统治者及其士人的加工改造，宗法制度下的血亲意识有的转化为法律条文(如 “不孝”成为犯法的 “首恶”)，更主要的是形成宗法式的伦理道德，长久地左右着人们的社会心理和行为规范。在社会心理方面，中国人向来对血缘关系格外注重。与此相联系，中国人往往怀有浓烈的 “孝亲”情感，这种情感不仅表现为对死去的先祖的祭奠，更表现为对活着的长辈的绝对孝顺，所谓 “百善孝为先”。孝道被视为一切道德规范的核心和母体，忠君、敬长、尊上等，都是孝道的延伸。正是由于整个社会的 “孝亲”意识，才使得绝大多数炎黄子孙不致成为 “六亲不认”的宗教狂徒。从这个意义上说，纲常伦理观念如同一具庞大严密的 “思想滤清器”，阻挡、淡化了宗教精神对国民意识的渗透。

Ethics-politics-oriented Chinese traditional culture has not only influenced the ideology for a long time，but also profoundly influenced the traditional social psychology and the behavior of people，such as showing filial piety to ancestors and parents，paying respect to masters and elders， self-cultivating and being practical，not trusting in ghosts and spirits，etc.Thus，philosopher Spengler took moral spirit as the basic symbol of the Chinese culture.Philosopher Hegel said:“Chinese culture is completely based on the combination of moralities.The feature of the nation is filial piety.”If the western culture is taken as “intellectual culture”，Chinese culture may be called “moral culture”.There is some truth in the saying.Chinese traditional culture stresses much on “morality”but never neglects “intelligence”.It is a culture of unification of “morality” and “intelligence”and a culture of taking in intelligence from morality.

The ethical characteristic of Chinese culture mainly comes from the improvement of the social patriarchal clan system in ancient China and its influence.The consanguinity consciousness associated with distinctive patriarchal clan system，i.e.，the concept of so-called “six kins ”(father and son，brothers and couples)and “nine clans”(four father family members，three mother family members，two wife family members)forms the axis of social consciousness，and its form is becoming more and more complicated.After the improvement of rulers and scholars in all ages，some blood consciousness under the patriarchal clan system has changed into the legal codes，(such as “un-filial piety”has become “arch-criminal”)and formed patriarchal ethics which controls people's social psychology and behaviour.In the aspect of social psychology， Chinese people have been paying much attention to blood lineage.Likewise，Chinese people tend to have a strong emotion of “filial piety ” which is shown through holding grand memorial ceremonies for the deceased ancestors and owing absolute filial piety to the living elders.That is the so-called “Of all virtues filial piety is the most important”.Filial piety is regarded as the core of all ethics.Being loyal to the king，respecting the elders and honoring the superiors，etc.，are the extension of filial piety.It is due to “filial piety”consciousness of the whole society that most of the Chinese people will not become religious fanatics who repudiate all of the relatives.In this sense，the concept of ethics is like a“mind-filter”which blocks and plays down the penetration of the religious spirit into the national consciousness.

在古希腊和古罗马，人们关注的重心不是人际伦常关系，而是大自然和人类思维的奥秘，主体与客体二分、心灵与物质对立的观念深入人心，宇宙理论、形而上学得到较充分的发展。以柏拉图为代表的古希腊哲学体系三分为思辨哲学、自然哲学和精神哲学，此后直到近代，西方以 “求真”为目标的学术范式一脉相承，宇宙论、认识论与道德论各自独立发展，虽有联系，但从未混淆不清; 中国则不同，人伦效法自然， “人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”(《老子》第二十五章)。自然亦被人伦化，天人之间攀上了血亲关系，君王即 “天子”，从而形成了天人合一、主客混融的局面。中国古代的知识论从未与道德伦理学说明晰地区分开来，为学的目标主要固在于求 “真”——探索自然奥秘，但更在于求 “善”——追求道德觉悟。外在的自然界既未被当作独立的认知对象与人伦相分离，以外物为研究对象的科学便遭到冷遇和压抑，自然科学、分析哲学因此难以获得充分的发展。伦理学却滋生扩张，甚至成为众多学科门类的出发点和归结点; 政治学成为道德评判，政事被归结为善恶之别、正邪之争、君子小人之辨; 文学强调教化功能，成为 “载道”的工具; 史学往往不以存史为基本任务，而以 “寓褒贬，别善恶”为宗旨; 教育更以德育居首，所谓 “首孝悌，次见闻”(《三字经》)，“行有余力则以学文”(《论语·学而篇》)，知识的传授倒退居其次; 至于哲学，在中国文化体系中则往往与伦理学相混融，主要是一种道德哲学。这一点在儒学中体现得尤为鲜明。宗法社会特定的伦理型文化，自有其正面的积极效用。

In ancient Greece and Rome，what people concern is not ethical interpersonal relationship but the secrets of nature and human thinking.The idea of the dichotomy of subject and object and the opposition of spirit and material are commonly accepted.Universe theory and metaphysics are fully developed.Ancient Greek philosophy represented by Plato is divided into speculative philosophy， natural philosophy and spiritual philosophy.Till modern times，the academic norm of setting “pursuit of truth”as the goal comes down in one continuous line.Cosmology，epistemology and ethics develop independently，co-related but never confused; in China，on the other hand，human beings are the potential of all things，“ Human beings are a manifestation of the earth; the earth， a manifestation of the physical universe; the physical universe，a manifestation of Infinity; Infinity，the potential of all things.”(Chapter 25，Lao Zi).Nature can also be ethical，which formed the kinship between universe and human beings.The king is“son of universe”，thus forms the case of the syncretism between universe and human beings and the fusion of subject and object.Ancient Chinese theory of knowledge has never had a clear distinction with ethics.The chief goal of learning is to pursue the“truth”—to explore the mystery in nature，and furthermore to pursue the “kindness”—to seek ethical consciousness.External nature is not regarded as independent cognitive object and separated with ethics.Science taking external content as the research object was confronted with snub and depress，which makes natural science and analytic philosophy difficult to be fully developed.Ethics is breeding for expansion and has even become the starting and ending point of many disciplines.Politics has become moral judgments.The political events are ascribed to judge the difference between good and evil，to battle the struggle between the vital energy and the pathogenic factor，to debate between a gentleman and a base man.Literature emphasizes the function of enlightenment and has become the tool of spreading “Taoism”.Historiography tends not to preserve historical records as basic tasks，but to “imply judgement and differentiate good from evil”as the objective.Moral education is put in the first place.That is so-called“Begin love，and then see and hear”.(Three Character Primer)，“When all this is done and there is time for other things，they should use it for the study of the classics.”(The Analects:About Learning).That imparts knowledge back in the second place.As for philosophy，it is often mixed with ethics in the Chinese culture system and mainly a kind of moral philosophy which is obviously embodied in Confucianism.The specific ethical culture in patriarchal society has its positive utility.

在中国文化系统里，强调在道德面前人人平等，如孟子说 “人皆可以为尧舜”，王阳明说 “满街都是圣人”，都是肯定凡夫俗子也可以通过道德修养达到最高境界。伦理型文化对包括君主在内的统治者也可以形成道德制约和严格要求。自周朝开始，帝王死后有谥号，群臣根据其德行政绩加一概括语。这种人格评判式的道德制约，在缺乏分权制的古代中国，所发挥的社会调节功能不可低估。伦理型文化在特定历史条件下，还能鼓舞人们自觉维护正义，忠于国家民族，抵御外来侵略，保持高风亮节。千百年来，无数 “舍生取义”、“杀身成仁”的志士仁人，都从传统道德伦理思想中汲取营养，立德、立功，彪炳千秋。伦理型文化也有其消极的一面。它将伦理关系凝固化、绝对化，以致在某种程度上又成为人身压迫、精神虐杀的理论之源。

In Chinese culture system，everyone is equal before morality.Mencius once said “Everyone can be a sage”and Wang Yangming also said “There are saints everywhere”，which implies that common people can reach highest level through moral cultivation.Ethical culture may form moral restriction and strict requirements for rulers including monarchs.Since Zhou Dynasty，emperors after death may be granted posthumous title.A commendatory or derogatory summary may be added after the title according to their virtue achievements.The moral constraints on personality playing a function of social regulation should not be underestimated in the absence of a decentralized system in ancient China.Ethical culture in the specific historical conditions can also inspire people to consciously maintain justice，to be loyal to the nation，to resist foreign aggression and to keep noble moral principle.For thousands of years，countless people with lofty ideals who died for justice or for achieving virtue have drawn nutrition from traditional moral and ethical thought and made contributions and achieved great virtue which was handed down one generation after another.Ethical culture has its negative side，too.Sometimes it made ethical relations too absolute，which makes it the theoretical source of oppression and mental cruelty to some extent.