- 英语语法要素
- Fiberead W.J.迈克尔·麦金泰尔(Michael McIntyre)
- 6122字
- 2020-06-24 15:21:33
词类
就像我们要聊马,那么了解马的各个部位叫什么会有助于聊天的进行,因此,下面我们将开始讨论有关词类的语法问题。或许你觉得自己并不了解词类,但实际上,你每天都在用它们。
简单来说,词类是我们给不同种类的单词的名称。
马身体的各个部位 |
例如,我们用来表示事物、人或动物(动物,植物、矿物)的词是名词。
我们把用来描述动作(我们所做的事)的词称为动词。
记住每种词类相对应的概念有利于我们学习英语,因为随着学习进程的深入,这些单词以及它们在句子中的成分都会通过词类表示出来。想要分析一个单词在句子中的成分,我们得会判断出它的词性。比如,这个单词是表示动作的作用对象,还是动作的执行者。
名词(Noun)
名词是我们经常接触的词类,给人、地点或事物(也包括抽象概念)命名的词称为名词。名词涵盖了人类已知和未知领域里的一切事物,无论这个事物是客观存在的、主观精神上的,还是虚构的。(所以,假如你正在读一本科幻小说,讲的是一名来自左卡特罗的佐尔克用他的茨威尔枪射杀作恶多端的布赖斯特里安,那么书里所有虚构的人物和事物也都是名词。)
名词也有其他一些特征。首先,在大多数情况下,它们都可以变成复数形式——你可以谈论其中的一个,或者其中的两个、三个,甚至更多。规则名词(Regular nouns)在词尾加“s”(不是‘'s’!)变成复数形式。
*规则的(Regular):表示有规律地变化,用“常规”方式。
如下所示:
Cat…………cats
Building…………Buildings
Computer…………Computers
Noun…………Nouns
看懂这是怎么变形的了吗?我相信这个过程应该不难理解。现在,动手试一试吧!在下面表格中写出所给名词的复数形式。
Car…………
Dog…………
Mother…………
Book…………
但并非所有名词都是规则的,还有一些不规则名词。不规则名词不按“常规”方式(词尾加“s”)变成复数,它们的变形方式毫无规律可循。
*不规则的(Irregular):表示不采用寻常方法,独一无二,没有人会这样做。
有些改变词尾,例如:
child…………children
antenna…………antennae
有些改变中间的字母,例如:
man…………men
goose…………geese
有些依然是名词的原形,例如:
deer…………deer
fish…………fish
不过有一件事所有名词都能做到,即在单词前面加一个冠词—— a、the或an(如果单词以元音字母开头,则用an)。例如:
a book / the book
a car / the car
a documentary / the documentary
an artichoke / the artichoke
其他词类前面都不能加冠词。在这点上,名词可以说是独一无二了。
修饰语(Modifier):对句中其他词汇进行修饰、描述、改变或补充更多信息的单词。 |
名词的另一个特点就是它前面可以加描述性的词汇,我们称之为形容词:
The big dog
A colorful banner
The terrible movie
你可以观察这些描述性词汇(即修饰语)是如何将我们要表述的信息和名词结合起来的,不是什么年老的狗而是“a big dog”;不是常规的横幅而是“a colorful banner”;不是你所认为的普通电影而是“a terrible one”。
专有名词(Proper nouns):表示特定的人、地方或事物的名称:
Not just any girl, but Mary.
Not just any city, but London.
Not just any company, but General Motors.
你会注意到专有名词的首字母都要大写。(大多数情况下是这样,当然也有个例,一些像ebay.com这样的公司在名字的格式就不会遵循常规方式)
动词(Verb)
动词用来描述或命名一个动作或一种状态。所以,假如你能做到,或者其他东西能做到,那么表示人或事物行动过程的词就是动词,这是其一。
I ran five miles yesterday.
I study hard for finals.
I bought a car.
其二,动词也可以描述一种存在状态,例如:
I am a student.
She is a teacher.
This is my home.
They are my friends.
You are late.
其三,动词也有一些其他功能,即“协助”主要动词构成谓语动词词组:
I have done this before (main verb = done)
I had gone to bed. (main verb = gone)
We were playing. (main verb = playing)
和名词一样,动词也有一个特殊属性(即一种语法形式,或者说一项语法特权)。它们可以表示动作发生的时间,换句话说,动词是有时态变化的。我们可以用这种时态变化来说明这个动作是已经发生还是正在发生还是将要发生。例如:
I took the test
I am taking the test
I will take the test
只看这三个句子中的动词,你就能大概说出考试是在什么时候发生的。
现在,根据所给时间试着填写句中动词的时态变化。
动词 |
句子 |
Run |
Yesterday, I _______________. |
Study |
Tomorrow, I _______________. |
Work |
Right now, I _______________. |
代词(Pronoun)
代词是代替名词的一种词类。下面列举了一些代词:
I, he, she, they
them, him, her, me
their, my, her, his
代词可以让语言变得更加简洁,如此一来也解决了我们说话时总是无休止地重复同一事物这一问题。举个例子,如果Andy不会使用代词,他可能会说出下面这样一段话:
Bob is a good friend of Andy's. Bob came over to Andy's house last night. When Bob came inside, Bob asked Andy if he could borrow a cup of sugar because Bob's wife was making a cake for Bob's wife's self.
反之,Andy 可能会这样写(或说):
Bob is a good friend of mine. He came over to my house last night. When he came inside, he asked me if he could borrow a cup of sugar because his wife was making a cake for herself.
看吧,代词用起来就是省事儿。它们既避免了内容的大量重复,也使信息传递更加精炼。比如,当学院院长问我学生们的表现时,我就不用说:
Well, Dean Jones, Tom, Fred, Sally, Jose, Shanikra, Seumas, Alan, Susan, Maria, McKenzie ... (and so on and so forth for a hundred more students) ... are doing fine.
因为我不像Andy那样,我会在句子中用代词,所以我能这样说:
代词和名词在句子中扮演相同的角色,所以也可以认为两者属于同一种类型。例如:
Bob called me yesterday.
He called me yesterday.
Jose gave Sally a bouquet of roses.
He gave Sally a bouquet of roses.
若非要把代词拿出来和动词、名词比比,它也有自己的“杀手锏”,即它们能改变自己所属的“格”(case)。要想把这点搞透彻,我们还得专门研究一下代词这块,不过我们现在先来观察下面的例句,思考一下不同用法下的不同单词是怎么在一句话中表示同一个人(下面例句中的 “I”)的。
I heard the dog bark before it bit me on my leg.
“I”、“me”和“my”这三个“格”(不包含双关语)都指代同一个人,但是根据所做的句子成分不同,用来表示这个人的单词也会随之改变。
有些名词能做到的事,代词却不能做到:
1、代词前面不能加冠词(the、a、an)。也就是说,下列例句的写法或说法是错误的:
星号键(*):放在句子或者短语前表示这种表述方法不存在或是错误的。 |
*The he swam across the English Channel.
2、形容词不能用来修饰代词,但是可以修饰名词。
*The fast she won the race.
不过也有部分习语是例外,例如:
Silly old me! I forgot where I put my keys.
代词也采用不同的形式来表示所有格——即所有权。
my computer
her dress
their house
our horse
特殊的代词种类
疑问代词(Interrogative pronouns)是用于提问的代词。例如:
Who won the game?
Which color do you prefer?
Whom did you invite to the party?
When do we have the final exam?
What did he say?
不定代词(Indefinite pronouns)
我们称它为不定代词是因为它没有确切的指向,即说话者没有明确指定是谁或是什么内容。
Somebody broke into the store last night.
Has anybody seen my keys?
Nobody wants to take responsibility.
形容词(Adjective)
形容词用来描述名词(严格来说,叫“修饰”),所以我们没必要直接把图片上的狗称为:
《带项圈的狗》 ,Johann Christof Merck ,1705年 |
dog
你可以说它是一只
big dog.
或者,说它是一只
big, brown dog
在后一个例句中,你会发现形容词也可以组合在一起,换言之,从理论上讲,它们可以无限制地“叠加”在名词前面。不过这个过程也受客观因素的限制(毕竟你的读者一口气也念不了几个形容词),但是像:
the big, lame, ill-tempered, smelly, old, brown dog.
这么长的句子在可接受的范围内。
形容词在句子中也可以做另一种成分——主语补足语。不同于图形、表格手势、标志等直观明确的技术语言,在非技术语言中,带有主观描述的主语补足语在动词“to be”形式(is、am、are等)的右边。例如:
The man is tall.
The girl is beautiful.
The boy is not smart.
The woman is brilliant.
The town is far.
如果你想验证“形容词+名词”这一规则,你可以把画线单词放在形容词常在的位置。
The tall man
The beautiful girl
The smart boy
The brilliant woman
The far town
看看你能否找出下面句子中所有的形容词,如果有困难的话,先找出名词,再判断有没有修饰名词的单词。
We drove down the long street that dark night and did not stop until we came upon the huge, spooky mansion.
I was supposed to meet my good friend at the restaurant that had received splendid reviews but I was late.
With his long sword in his firm grip, the brave hero crept up on the horrible monster.
副词(Adverb)
*提示:“adverb”的单词构成是“verb”加前缀“ad”。
副词有两个作用,一、它可以修饰动词,告诉我们动作是如何、以什么方式或在什么时候进行的。
He walks slowly
The baby sleeps soundly
The sprinter ran quickly
I wasn't born yesterday.
二、它可以修饰形容词或者其他副词,比如下面这些例子:
the very big, dark brown, loudly barking, viciously belligerent bull dog …
walk very slowly
sleep extremely soundly
late yesterday
试着选出下列句子中的副词:
练习1:
We slowly drove down the unendingly long street that spookily dark night and did not stop until we finally came upon the immensely huge, ghostly mansion.
连词(Conjunction)
连词用来连接词与词、词组与词组或句子与句子,充当这三者之间的“桥梁”。
并列连词有:for、and、nor、but、or、yet、so。
连词连接单词:
I want ice cream and cake.
I like tea but not coffee.
连词连接词组:
Little Red Riding Hood skipped through the woods and over the bridge.
*提示:记住从属连接词的小窍门:“WABIT”:由when、while、after、although、before、if、till、though的首字母缩略词构成。当然连词的范围远远不止这些,和别的词类一样,有些连词也扮演着“双重角色”,但是上面那几个是入门级别的。
*提示:“Conjunction”就像两个火车车厢之间的车钩一样,起到连接作用,“junction”一词可看做是“join”和“conjoin”这两个词的结合。
*提示:“FANBOYS”(由for、and、nor、but、or、yet、so首字母缩略词构成)一词有助于我们记住并列(地位相等)连词。
*特别注意:“从属”(Subordinating)意味着按顺序排列,“Subordinating”由“sub”和“ordinate”构成。“sub”是指那种潜入水下的潜水艇可不是我们吃的“潜水艇”型三明治,“ordinate”就是有序排列的意思。
连词连接句子:
The boy hit the ball, and he ran to first base.
还有一种连词,我们称之为“从属”(Subordinating)连词。这类连词包括:when、while、although、because、if、though、till、 until。
Although Freddy hit the ball, we still lost the game.
We lost because Tommy was tagged out at first.
现在你可以试着找出下面所给例句中的连词:
We traveled to London and saw the Queen.
Until I heard her sing, I didn't think a person could really imitate a cat being tortured.
The World Series game was postponed because it was raining.
介词(Preposition)
介词在句子中也起到连接作用,但与连词有所不同。介词表示关系,常在短语中出现(我们称为介词短语)。
one of your problems …
far from home …
through the woods to grandmother’s house by the river in the next county
下面这张介词关系方块示意图标出了你和这个方块的位置关系,有了它记住介词就容易很多。
冠词(Article)
冠词包括a、an、the以及名词前的this、that和those。
a cat / the cat / this cat / that cat
a computer / the computer / this computer / that computer
an aardvark / the aardvark / this aardvark / that aardvark
以上是对词类的大致介绍,在接下来的章节中我们将逐一探讨这些概念。
提示:在整篇文章中,我会不时地列出帮助你记忆的工具,比如我们生活中常见的字符标志等,换句话说,学会“巧记”,这将有助于你记英语。 这些工具对你的学习大有裨益,以下是一些常用的记忆技巧:
有时我们可以借助韵律来记忆:
|
练习2
判断下面句子成分的词类。
N = noun
V = verb
pron = pronoun
adj = adjective
adv = adverb
conj = conjunction
prep = preposition
art = article
下面的例句来自于马克·吐温的小说《汤姆·索亚历险记》,
1 |
The |
old |
lady |
pulled |
her |
spectacles |
down |
and |
looked |
over |
them. |
2 |
She |
looked |
perplexed* |
for |
a |
moment. |
|||||
3 |
She |
went |
to |
the |
open |
door |
and |
stood |
in |
it |
|
and |
looked |
out |
among |
the |
tomato |
vines |
and |
weeds. |
|||
4 |
She |
then |
said, |
not |
fiercely, |
but |
still |
loud |
enough |
for |
the |
furniture |
to |
hear: |
"Tom!" |
||||||||
*perplexed = puzzled
有趣吧!(我觉得有趣极了!)
关于这些词性,有一件事值得注意,即使我们不知道这个词的意思,我们也一直觉得它有一个“归属”。
先来读读《爱丽丝漫游仙境》中的一段“废话诗”吧。
Twas = It was (旧时的缩写形式) |
Jabberwocky
`Twas* brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
"Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!"
He took his vorpal sword in hand:
Long time the manxome foe he sought --
So rested he by the Tumtum tree,
And stood awhile in thought.
And, as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!
One, two! One, two! And through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
He left it dead, and with its head
He went galumphing back.
"And, has thou slain the Jabberwock?
Come to my arms, my beamish boy!
O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!'
He chortled in his joy.
开始做练习!让我们回到诗的第一节(即你们所说的诗歌的“段落”)。
练习3:判断第一节诗中单词的词类。
(提示:第一行中,“'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves”相当于“Twas (It was) brillig …” 上面我们已经接触过这种缩写形式了。在 “He is tall.”、“She is brilliant.”这些句子中,动词 “is” 右边的单词要么做名词要么做形容词,由于一个名词前面应该带有一个“a”或“the”作为它的冠词,所以在这两个句子中“is”右边的是形容词。我们不知道“slithy tove”的意思,但是 “slithy” 看上去像是修饰 “toves”,所以这可能是一个形容词加名词的组合。)
Twas (It was) brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe
brillig
adjective
noun
verb
slithy
verb
noun
preposition
adjective
toves
preposition
noun
adverb
verb
did gyre
verb
noun
adverb
adjective
wabe
preposition
adverb
noun
verb
词类小游戏#1
这个游戏会以一种有趣的方式来说明词类是如何在句子中各自发挥作用的,它们都能在句子中找到最合适的位置,虽然不是每次出现都有实际意义,但这种乐趣才回味无穷啊!
请先用单词的适当形式填空,再通读此章节。
noun __________________________________________
noun __________________________________________
noun - same as #1 __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
noun - (same as 2) __________________________________________
verb - past tense __________________________________________
noun - food __________________________________________
noun - place __________________________________________
verb - __________________________________________
animal __________________________________________
- ing verb __________________________________________
noun - food __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
noun - season / time __________________________________________
noun - same as #2 __________________________________________
noun - time __________________________________________
noun - same as #1 __________________________________________
noun - food __________________________________________
noun - same as #2 __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
noun - time - season __________________________________________
noun - same as #1 __________________________________________
noun - food __________________________________________
noun - adjective __________________________________________
noun - same as #2 __________________________________________
-ing verb __________________________________________
noun - food __________________________________________
noun - time __________________________________________
noun - same as #2 __________________________________________
The 1 __________________________ and the 2__________________________
A Fakeable by Fakesop -- Aesop’s wacky twin brother
根据上表将下面的故事补充完整。
In a field one summer’s day a 3 __________________________ was 4 __________________________ about, and 5 __________________________ and 6 __________________________ to its heart’s content. An 7 __________________________ 8 __________________________ by, carrying an9 __________________________ with great difficulty that it was taking to the 10 __________________________
“Why not come and 11 __________________________ with me,” said the 12 __________________________ “instead of 13 __________________________ that 14 __________________________?”
“I am 15 __________________________ for the 16 __________________________ said the 17 __________________________ “and you should do the same.”
“Why bother about the 18 __________________________?” said the 19 __________________________; we have plenty of 20 __________________________ at present.” But the 21 __________________________ went on its way and continued its 22 __________________________ . When the 23 __________________________ came the 24 __________________________ had no 25 __________________________ and found itself very 26 __________________________ while it saw the 27 __________________________ everyday 28 __________________________ the 29 __________________________ it had collected in the 30 __________________________ . Then the 31 __________________________ said: “It is best to prepare for the days of necessity.”
词类小游戏#2
请先用单词的适当形式填空,再通读此章节。
noun __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as #1) __________________________
noun - plural __________________________
verb - past participle (the I have done/run/walked form) __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as two) __________________________
noun __________________________
adverb ( -ly word) __________________________
noun __________________________
adjective __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as 1) __________________________
verb __________________________
noun __________________________
verb - past participle (the I have done/run/walked form) __________________________
noun (same as 2) __________________________
verb __________________________
noun (same as 1) __________________________
verb __________________________
noun (same as 2) __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as 2) __________________________
verb (past tense) __________________________
noun (same as 1) __________________________
verb (past tense) __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as 2) __________________________
noun __________________________
verb __________________________
noun __________________________
noun (same as 2) __________________________
The 1 __________________________ and the 2__________________________
A Fakeable by Fakesop -- Aesop’s wacky twin brother
根据上表将下面的故事补充完整。
The 3 __________________________ was once boasting of his speed before the other 4__________________________ . I have never yet been 5__________________________ when I put forth my full 6__________________________ ,“ he said. “I challenge any 7__________________________ here to race with me.
The 8__________________________ said 9__________________________ ,” I accept your 10__________________________ .”
“That is a 11__________________________ 12 __________________________ ,” said the 13__________________________ ; “I could 14 __________________________ you all the way.”
“Keep your 15__________________________ shut till you’ve 16__________________________ ,” answered the 17 __________________________ . “Shall we 18__________________________ ?”
So a start was made. The 19__________________________ 20 __________________________ off at once, but soon stopped, and to show his contempt for the 21 __________________________ , lay down to have a 22__________________________ . Meanwhile, the 23__________________________ 24__________________________ on and on, and when the 25__________________________ 26__________________________ from his 27 __________________________ , he saw the 28__________________________ near the 29__________________________ and could not catch up in time to 31__________________________ the 31 __________________________ . Then the 32__________________________ said: “Slow and steady wins the race.”
此页留空,练习答案从下一页开始。
标准答案
练习1(划出副词):
We slowly drove down the unendingly long street that spookily dark night and did not stop until we finally came upon the immensely huge, ghostly mansion.
练习2:
下面的例句来自于马克·吐温的小说《汤姆·索亚历险记》,尽可能多地写出单词的词性:
1 |
The |
old |
lady |
pulled |
her |
spectacles |
down |
and |
looked |
over |
them. |
Art |
Adj |
Noun |
Verb |
Pron |
Noun |
Adv |
Conj |
Verb |
Prep |
Pron |
|
2 |
She |
looked |
perplexed* |
for |
a |
moment. |
|||||
Pron |
Verb |
Adj |
Prep |
Art |
Noun |
||||||
3 |
She |
went |
to |
the |
open |
door |
and |
stood |
in |
it |
|
Pron |
Verb |
Prep |
Art |
Adj |
Noun |
Conj |
Verb |
Prep |
Pron |
||
and |
looked |
out |
among |
the |
tomato |
vines |
and |
weeds. |
|||
Conj |
Verb |
Prep |
Prep |
Art |
Noun |
Noun |
Conj |
noun |
|||
4 |
She |
then |
said, |
not |
fiercely, |
but |
still |
loud |
enough |
for |
the |
Pron |
Adv |
Verb |
Adv |
Adv |
Conj |
Adv |
Adv |
Adv |
Prep |
Art |
|
furniture |
to |
hear: |
"Tom!" |
||||||||
Noun |
Prep |
Verb |
noun |
*
练习3:
Twas (It was) brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe
brillig
xxx adjective xxx
noun
verb
slithy
verb
noun
preposition
xxx adjective xxx
toves
preposition
xxx noun xxx
adverb
verb
did gyre
xxx verb xxx
noun
adverb
adjective
wabe
preposition
adverb
xxx noun xxxx
verb